What is Traditional African Medicine?

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Abstract

African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system organized into three levels of specialty, namely divination, spiritualism, and herbalism. The traditional healer provides health care services based on culture, religious background, knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs that are prevalent in his community. Illness is regarded as having both natural and supernatural causes and thus must be treated by both physical and spiritual means, using divination, incantations, animal sacrifice, exorcism, and herbs. Herbal medicine is the cornerstone of traditional medicine but may include minerals and animal parts. The adjustment is ok, but may be replaced with –‘ Herbal medicine was once termed primitive by western medicine but through scientific investigations there is a better understanding of its therapeutic activities such that many pharmaceuticals have been modeled on phytochemicals derived from it. Major obstacles to the use of African medicinal plants are their poor quality control and safety. Traditional medical practices are still shrouded with much secrecy, with few reports or documentations of adverse reactions. However, the future of African traditional medicine is bright if viewed in the context of service provision, increase of health care coverage, economic potential, and poverty reduction. Formal recognition and integration of traditional medicine into conventional medicine will hold much promise for the future.

Traditional African Medicine is the traditional wellness practice of Africa combined with a dominant religious/spiritual component. 

As Africa is considered the cradle of humankind, Traditional African Medicine is regarded as the oldest Traditional Medicine practice in the world.

Traditional African Medicine is more eclectic than other, more homogenized traditional wellness systems due to the diverse range of countries, cultures, religions, beliefs, effects of colonization, and indigenous wisdom practices throughout the continent.

However, the traditional African philosophy of illness typically encompasses relations between God, ancestors, the living, and the universe.

Although this may seem unfamiliar to non-Africans, a basic understanding of how this works is foundational to understanding TAM.

According to a paper entitled “Understanding traditional African healing,” published in the African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation, and Dance, traditional and indigenous African religions see and relate to God differently than other religions.

For starters, departed/dead ancestors play a primary role in a person’s relationship with God and health. 

They see these ancestors as compassionate spirits that act as mediators between the living and God. 

God is held in the highest esteem as the creator and ultimate ruler of the universe. Therefore, he is not addressed directly but through departed ancestors. 

These communications or prayers may be facilitated by a Traditional African Medicine practitioner or healer as they relate to physical, mental, or emotional health states.

In addition to facilitating communication and relations with ancestors, the use of traditional plants and herbs and various animal products are common threads between the varied forms of this ancient practice.

Before the introduction of modern medicine through colonialism, Traditional African Medicine was the dominant, or in some cases the only system available to millions of people in rural and urban communities. 

Today, Traditional African Medicine and herbalism are alive and well, with research showing most Africans rely on it as their primary healthcare resource. 

For example: 1

• According to the World Health Organization, over 80% of Africans use Traditional African Medicine

• In Ghana, about 70% of the population depends primarily on TAM

• Approximately 27 million South Africans (typically black South Africans) use TAM to treat a variety of ailments

• 90% of the population in Ethiopia use herbal preparations as their primary healthcare 2

However, colonialism, which viewed ancestral medicine as inferior, dangerous, or even “witchcraft,” impeded the growth and development of Traditional African Medicine for a very long time.

How Colonialism Impacted Traditional African Medicine

As mentioned previously, Traditional African Medicine was the primary medicine of the people, passed down from generation to generation, healer to healer, medicine person to medicine person until colonialism took hold.

Although there are different perspectives on how colonialism impacted indigenous knowledge systems, including medicine and folklore, it is clear indigenous practices were attacked, stigmatized, and even banned in some countries and regions.

According to Hassim et al., as noted in the research paper: “Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines:

“During several centuries of conquest and invasion, European systems of medicine were introduced by colonizers. Pre-existing African systems were stigmatized and marginalized. Indigenous knowledge systems were denied the chance to systematize and develop.”

Although many Traditional African Medicine practices survived and thrived in these times, others did not fare so well.

For example, in South Africa, the South African Medical Association outlawed traditional medical systems in South Africa in 1953, denying people access to the herbs, wellness practices, and rituals of their ancestors. 

The Witchcraft Suppression Act of 1957 and the Witchcraft Suppression Amendment Act of 1970 also declared Traditional medicine unconstitutional and banned its practice in South Africa.

Other countries and regions fared better and were able to preserve the ancient ways of healing.

For example, in 1922, a group of native Nigerian healers insisted that their medicine be legally recognized.

The idea of these practices being linked to “witchcraft” (due to the integration of supernatural forces, which we’ll discuss more in the next section) caused a great deal of suppression, stigmatism, and harm to these indigenous medicine systems.

Fortunately, in post-independence Africa, these traditional wellness practices are recognized as an important aspect of healthcare delivery systems. 

This is evident through establishing and expanding University research studies of native herbs; accreditation, registries, and regulations for native healers; and federal integration (in some countries, such as Nigeria) of Traditional Medicine as part of primary care.

Undoubtedly, Traditional African Medicine and those who relied on it experienced suppression, harm, and setbacks due to colonialism.

However, the peoples’ interest in and commitment to their indigenous medicines and traditions has helped protect and revitalize many of these ancient practices.

Traditional African Medicine Practitioners

Practitioners of Traditional African Medicine receive a special calling from their ancestors to become healers.

This calling may come from a physical, mental, or emotional illness or through specific dreams.

Their callings are then verified by another healer, who then advises the next steps regarding training and teachers or mentors.

Trainees or apprentices live with their trainers and are taught various aspects of TAM, such as but not limited to:

• Preparing and using plant, herbs, and animal extracts

• Diagnostic techniques such as interpreting bones

• Dream analysis

• Communicating with the ancestors 

• How to identify and address different illnesses and health concerns

Training can take years, and upon completion, a ceremony or initiation is performed to validate and legitimize the healer.

Traditional medicine is viewed as a combination of knowledge and practice used in diagnosing, preventing, and eliminating disease. This may rely on past experience and observations handed down from generation to generation either verbally, frequently in the form of stories, or spiritually by ancestors or, in modern times, in writing [6]. It has also been said that before attaining knowledge in traditional African medicine, one is often required to be initiated into a secret society, as many characteristics of this form of medicine can only be passed down to initiates. The importance of traditional medicine, however, dwindled during the colonial period, whereby it was viewed as inferior to Western medicine. It was thus banned completely in some countries due to its association with witchcraft /voodoo, supernatural, and magical implications, in which case, it was also termed “juju” (Nigeria) or “native medicine,” since it made use of charms and symbols which were used to cast or remove spells. Some forms of treatment may also involve ritual practices such as animal sacrifices to appease the gods, if the ailment was envisaged to be caused by afflictions from the gods, especially in the treatment of the mentally ill patients.

Traditional African Medicine practitioners go by many different titles depending on where they practice and their training/calling, including: 3

• Bonesetters

• Diviners

• Herbalists

• High priests

• Midwives

• Practitioners of Therapeutic Occultism

They also go by different names, such as:

• Babalawo, Adahunse or Oniseegun among the Yoruba speaking people of Nigeria

• Abia ibok among the Ibibio community of Nigeria 

• Dibia among the Igbo of Nigeria

• Boka among the Hausa-speaking people of Nigeria

• Sangoma or Nyanga among South Africans : (South African traditional medicine, often referred to as African Traditional Medicine (ATM), is a diverse and holistic system rooted in the use of indigenous herbal remedies, spiritual practices, and traditional healing methods. It emphasizes the interconnectedness of physical, spiritual, and social well-being, with healers, like sangomas and inyangas, playing a crucial role in diagnosis and treatment. 

  Key aspects of South African traditional medicine:

  • Herbalism:

    The most prominent aspect is the use of medicinal plants, with over 771 species recorded in trade. Roots, bulbs, and bark are commonly used, and there's a belief that roots hold the strongest "medicine". 

  • Spiritual Dimension:

    ATM incorporates spiritual elements, with healers often communicating with ancestors to diagnose and treat illnesses. 

  • Holistic Approach:

    ATM considers the physical, spiritual, and social aspects of a patient's well-being, treating the whole person rather than just symptoms. 

  • Accessibility and Affordability:

    Traditional medicine is often a primary healthcare option, particularly in rural areas, due to its accessibility and affordability. 

  • Growing Recognition:

    While facing challenges like safety and efficacy concerns, there's growing recognition and efforts to integrate ATM into modern healthcare systems. 

  • The development and use of traditional herbal medicine (THM) have a very long historical background that corresponds to the Stone Age. In the continent of Africa, the practice of traditional healing and magic is much older than some of the other traditional medical sciences [1] and seems to be much more prevalent compared to conventional medicine. African traditional medicine is a form of holistic health care system that is organized into three levels of specialty, which include divination, spiritualism, and herbalism, though these may overlap in some situations [2, 3].

    A traditional healer is one who provides medical care in the community that he lives, using herbs, minerals, animal parts, incantations, and other methods, based on the cultures and beliefs of his people. He must be seen to be competent, versatile, experienced, and trusted [4]. In other definitions, priestesses, high priests, witch doctors, diviners, midwives, seers or spiritualists, and herbalists are included. Traditional medical practitioner (TMP), however, seems to be a modern acceptable concept agreed on by the Scientific Technical and Research Commission (STRC) of the Organization of African Unity (OAU), which is now African Union (AU). In specific cultures, these people go by their local names, depending on their tribe, such as Sangoma or inyanga in South Africa, akomfo, bokomowo in Ghana, niam-niam, shaman, or mugwenu in Tanzania, nga:nga in Zambia, shaman or laibon in Kenya, and babalawo, dibia, or boka, etc. in Nigeria [5]. It is commonplace to see traditional healers dressed in certain peculiar attires, with head bands, feathers, and eyes painted with native chalk.

  Examples of traditional remedies and practices:

  • African potato: Used for conditions like diabetes, arthritis, and urinary tract issues. 

  • Fever tea: Used to treat fever, headaches, and respiratory infections. 

  • Rooibos: Known for its anti-inflammatory properties and potential benefits for high blood pressure. 

  • Sangomas: Spiritual healers who communicate with ancestors to diagnose and treat illnesses. 

  • Inyangas: Healers who use a combination of herbal remedies and spiritual practices).

• Godobori or N'anga among Zimbabweans. ( Traditional medicine is a vital part of the Zimbabwean healthcare system, relying heavily on herbal remedies passed down through generations via oral tradition and mentorship according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH) (.gov). Many traditional healers in Zimbabwe are also diviners, combining herbal remedies with spiritual practices. The use of plants like Zumbani (Lippia javanica) is common, with varying quality and consistency affecting patient safety. The Traditional Medical Practitioners Council aims to regulate and promote safer practices.  Traditional medicine is a significant part of healthcare in Zimbabwe, with herbal remedies and practices widely used. These traditions are passed down through generations and often involve a blend of herbal remedies, spiritual beliefs, and ritualistic practices. Traditional healers, often called "n'angas" or "sangomas," play a vital role in Zimbabwean society, providing both physical and spiritual healing. 

  Key Aspects of Traditional Medicine in Zimbabwe:

  Herbal Remedies:

  • A wide variety of plants, including their roots, leaves, bark, and seeds, are used to treat various ailments, from common colds and coughs to more serious conditions like malaria and sexually transmitted infections. 

  • Spiritual and Ritualistic Practices:

    Traditional healers often combine herbal treatments with rituals and spiritual cleansing to address the root cause of illness, which they may believe to be a combination of physical and spiritual factors. 

  • Mentorship and Knowledge Transmission:

    Traditional medicinal knowledge is primarily passed down through mentorship, with younger practitioners learning from experienced healers. 

  • Role of the Healer:

    The "n'anga" or "sangoma" is a respected figure in the community, providing guidance and treatment based on their knowledge and experience. 

  • Growing Recognition and Regulation:

    There is an increasing awareness and recognition of traditional medicine, with efforts to regulate and professionalize the field through the Traditional Medical Practitioners Council. 

  Examples of Medicinal Plants and Uses:

  • Lippia javanica (Zumbani): Used for respiratory issues, fever, and digestive problems. 

  • Cassia abbreviata: Commonly used in malaria treatment by healers. 

  • Lannea discolor (Mugan'acha): Used for stomachaches. 

  • Buffalo thorn (Ziziphus mucronata): Used for a variety of ailments, including stomach disorders, tuberculosis, and boosting immunity). 

These traditional practitioners serve many roles, including but not limited to acting as custodians of the traditional African religion and customs, herbalists, nutritionists, educators of culture, counselors, social workers, and psychologists.

They are also pillars of their communities and sought-after for various advice.

Many researchers have noted it is near-impossible to separate Traditional African Medicine from various African religions and spiritual practices as the two are interwoven, with practitioners playing dual roles as religious leaders or prophets and healers.

Traditional healers generally diagnose and treat the mental and spiritual person before recommending herbs or plants for physical symptoms.

Treatment often includes determining which spirits are at work and how to bring a sick person back into harmony with the ancestors.

Traditional African healers may also recommend different herbs and other plants, mineral, or animal substances (zootherapy), offer nutritional advice, and employ various methodologies, including:

• Surgeries, such as circumcisions

• Healing rituals, such as prayers, dancing, and animal sacrifice

• Bone Setting

• Attendance at births (birth attendants are usually older women who have mastered the skills of midwifery through experience)

• Various diagnostic systems

• Bodywork

• Exercises

Given TAM's diversity, it is impossible to summarize the full scope of what these practitioners provide.

However, they are credited with supporting the physical, mental, and emotional well-being of their tribes and people for thousands of years. They are still sought-after today—exclusively or in addition to modern medical care.

Traditional Herbs and Plants Used in Traditional African Medicine

Traditional plants and herbs are a common thread within the spectrum of Traditional African Medicine.

Africa’s diverse climate and landscapes make it incredibly biodiverse. 

It is estimated that between 40,000 to 45,000 species of African plants may have potential health benefits.

Of these, 5,000 species are used to support various aspects of health.

In many parts of rural Africa, these herbs and plants are the most accessible, affordable, and sometimes, the only health resource available. They are also considered the most common traditional medicine in the country.

As the introduction mentions, North Americans and Europeans regularly benefit from traditional African herbs in various supplements and teas.

Some examples of African herbs include:

• Acacia, also known as Gum Arabic: Promotes gut health, digestive, respiratory, and heart function and aids occasional constipation. It’s also used as a thickener, stabilizer, and flavor enhancer in foods and beverages.

• African Ginger, also known as Wild Ginger: Has been traditionally used to support immune and respiratory function for nausea and minor pain management.

• Artemisia, Asteraceae, or Wormwood: Used traditionally to support intestinal, cardiovascular, bronchial, and metabolic function and for minor pain management.

• Bitter Aloe or Cape Aloe: Used to support digestion, soothe the skin, and for occasional constipation, this herb is considered a bitter tonic with antioxidant and inflammatory-support properties.

• Bitter Melon: This plant is used extensively throughout traditional African and Asian wellness practices. The leaves are prepared as a tea called “cerassie,” and its juice is commonly used in folklore to support metabolic function and sugar metabolism.

• Centella: This prehistoric plant is used in many cultures, including Ayurveda, Traditional Chinese Medicine, Kampo (Japanese traditional medicine), and Traditional African Medicine to support skin health, eye health, inflammatory response, respiratory function, immune response, joint health, and cognitive function.

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• Devil's Claw: Native to South Africa, Botswana, and Namibia, Devil’s Claw has been used for centuries by the indigenous and is one of the most highly commercialized traditional African herbs. Traditional uses include supporting histamine response for minor pain management, cardiovascular function, bitter tonic, blood function, challenges with childbirth, urinary function, menstrual cramps, digestive function, joint function, indigestion, as a liver and gallbladder tonic, sleep, and skin health.

• Ginger: This familiar herb is used throughout Africa and Asia to support digestive function, minor pain management, and nausea.

• Honeybush: This tasty South African herb is used as a tea and taken to support digestive and urinary function, breastmilk production, and for fussy babies.

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• Madagascar periwinkle: This native African herb is commonly used in Traditional African Medicine as a bitter tonic, galactagogue (supports breast milk production, and emetic (to induce vomiting). 

• Pelargonium sidoides, also known as African Geranium or Umckaloabo: Native to the coastal regions of South Africa, P. sidoides root extract EPs 7630, also known as Umckaloabo, is a traditional and well-studied herb used to support immune and respiratory function. Its use is widespread globally, including in North America, and is a popular ingredient in many herbal cough syrups. It also has a history of traditional use for gastrointestinal support.

• Rooibos: Known globally as an antioxidant-rich, caffeine-free herbal tea, Rooibos has been traditionally used to calm fussy babies, and research suggests it may provide protective benefits and support bronchial, immune, cognitive, and cell function.

• Tamarind: The bark and leaves of Tamarind have been traditionally used to support skin health, as a laxative (the fruit), and to support normal bowel function.

This is not an extensive list of all traditional plants and herbs used in Traditional African Medicine. 

However, it gives a good overview of the diversity of plants used in this ancient wellness practice.

Traditional African Medicine Today

Research shows that 60-80% of Africans still rely on TAM, either exclusively or in addition to modern medical care.

Some African medical Universities have also incorporated varying levels of TAM education within their curriculum.

However, not everyone is on board with these traditional practices. 

Passionate ambivalence towards traditional folklore and herbalism has been noted in some segments of the population and medical establishments, particularly among educated elites. 11

Westernization and urbanization have also significantly impacted the use of TAM in rural and urban communities in positive and negative ways.

Accessibility to modern medicines and drugs in middle and low-income countries is a big reason for the sustained popularity of TAM.

Studies have shown drugs are beyond the reach of large sections of rural and poor populations in Africa and throughout the world. 12

Plus, medical doctors in Africa tend to be concentrated in urban areas, making their services inaccessible for millions in rural areas who, instead, rely on native healers as the primary healthcare providers.

To put this in perspective:

• The ratio of traditional healers to the population in Africa is 1 to 500 

• The ratio of medical doctors to the population is 1 to 40,000

African herbs are also widely used within and outside of Africa. 

Specific herbs such as Pelargonium sidoides (aka: African Geranium or Umckaloabo), Madagascar Periwinkle, Devil’s Clase, Rooibos, and Acaia are widely studied and exported to the West.

Unlike Western countries, which are just now rediscovering the benefits of various traditional and indigenous medicines (aka: complementary alternative medicine or CAM), the majority of Africans have held fast to their traditional wellness practices, even in the face of adversity.

How to Learn More Traditional African Medicine

African Traditional Medicine has not had the same level of exposure or acceptance as others, like Traditional Chinese Medicine or Ayurveda, in North America.

However, there are active Traditional African Medicine practitioners and herbalists in North America.

For example, the Professional Association of Traditional African Medicine is a resource for finding training, research, and information on naturopathic herbalist studies and TAM in America.

People can also experience aspects of Traditional African Medicine through cultural events African cuisine, and by learning more about and/or trying TAM herbs.

Rooibos and Honeybush teas, for example, can be found in natural foods stores and online.

Tamarind fruit is a delicious sweet and/or sour snack, available in African, Asian, and ethnic markets and some natural foods stores.

You can also try herbal cough syrups containing sustainably and ethically sourced Pelargonium sidoides, which may be sold under the brand name: “Umckaloabo,” “Umcka,” or “Umka,” or listed as: EPs (Extract Pelargonium) 7630 the next time you need a little respiratory support.

In closing, this article could not encompass or explain all the history, nuances, intricacies, research, spiritual and religious aspects, and overall variety that comprise the ancient practices of Traditional African Medicine.

Although there are excellent research papers to draw from, much of this wisdom remains within the African communities and tribes in which it originated.

Thankfully, researchers and historians, along with modern communication and technology, have given us a glimpse into the vast and often mysterious world of Traditional African Medicine, a system from which we may all find resonance and benefit.

Traditional African Medicine Today

Research shows that 60-80% of Africans still rely on TAM, either exclusively or in addition to modern medical care.

Some African medical Universities have also incorporated varying levels of TAM education within their curriculum.

However, not everyone is on board with these traditional practices. 

Passionate ambivalence towards traditional folklore and herbalism has been noted in some segments of the population and medical establishments, particularly among educated elites.

Westernization and urbanization have also significantly impacted the use of TAM in rural and urban communities in positive and negative ways.

Accessibility to modern medicines and drugs in middle and low-income countries is a big reason for the sustained popularity of TAM.

Studies have shown drugs are beyond the reach of large sections of rural and poor populations in Africa and throughout the world. 12

Plus, medical doctors in Africa tend to be concentrated in urban areas, making their services inaccessible for millions in rural areas who, instead, rely on native healers as the primary healthcare providers.

To put this in perspective:

• The ratio of traditional healers to the population in Africa is 1 to 500 

• The ratio of medical doctors to the population is 1 to 40,000

African herbs are also widely used within and outside of Africa. 

Specific herbs such as Pelargonium sidoides (aka: African Geranium or Umckaloabo), Madagascar Periwinkle, Devil’s Clase, Rooibos, and Acaia are widely studied and exported to the West.

Unlike Western countries, which are just now rediscovering the benefits of various traditional and indigenous medicines (aka: complementary alternative medicine or CAM), the majority of Africans have held fast to their traditional wellness practices, even in the face of adversity.

How to Learn More Traditional African Medicine

African Traditional Medicine has not had the same level of exposure or acceptance as others, like Traditional Chinese Medicine or Ayurveda, in North America.

However, there are active Traditional African Medicine practitioners and herbalists in North America.

For example, the Professional Association of Traditional African Medicine is a resource for finding training, research, and information on naturopathic herbalist studies and TAM in America.

People can also experience aspects of Traditional African Medicine through cultural events African cuisine, and by learning more about and/or trying TAM herbs.

Rooibos and Honeybush teas, for example, can be found in natural foods stores and online.

Tamarind fruit is a delicious sweet and/or sour snack, available in African, Asian, and ethnic markets and some natural foods stores.

You can also try herbal cough syrups containing sustainably and ethically sourced Pelargonium sidoides, which may be sold under the brand name: “Umckaloabo,” “Umcka,” or “Umka,” or listed as: EPs (Extract Pelargonium) 7630 the next time you need a little respiratory support.

3.1. Methods of preparation and dosage forms

Methods of preparation of herbal medicines may vary according to place and culture. The plant materials may be used fresh or dry. With experience, a particular method is chosen to increase efficiency and decrease toxicity. Generally, different methods of preparation include:

1. Extraction—This is prepared with solvent on a weight by volume basis. Sometimes, the solvent is evaporated to a soft mass.

2. Infusions are prepared by macerating the crude drug for a short period of time in cold or hot water. A preservative such as honey may be added to prevent spoilage.

3. Decoctions are made by boiling woody pieces for a specified period of time and filtered. Potash may be added to aid extraction and as preservative.

4. Tinctures are alcoholic infusions which if concentrated may be diluted before administration.

5. Ashing—The dried parts are incinerated to ash, then sieved and added as such to water or food.

6. Miscellaneous—Other types include liniments for external applications in liquid, semi-liquid, or oily forms containing the active substances; lotions which are liquid preparations intended for skin application. Poultices are prepared from macerated fresh part of plant containing the juice from the plant and applied to skin. Snuffs are powdered dried plant inhaled through the nostrils. Dried plants may be burnt, and their charcoal is used as such. Gruels are cereals/porridges made from grains, to which dried powdered plant or its ash is added to be taken orally. Mixtures are sometimes prepared with more than one plant to give synergistic or potentiating effects of the composite plants.

There are also different methods of administration. Apart from the common routes such as oral, rectal, topical, and nasal, other methods include smoking a crudely prepared cigar containing dried plant materials or by passive inhalation. Others are steaming and inhaling the volatile oils exuding from the boiling plant material. These can be used to relieve congestion, headaches, or pulmonary problems. Sitz baths are used for piles

In closing, this article could not encompass or explain all the history, nuances, intricacies, research, spiritual and religious aspects, and overall variety that comprise the ancient practices of Traditional African Medicine.

Although there are excellent research papers to draw from, much of this wisdom remains within the African communities and tribes in which it originated.

Thankfully, researchers and historians, along with modern communication and technology, have given us a glimpse into the vast and often mysterious world of Traditional African Medicine, a system from which we may all find resonance and benefit.

REFERENCES:

• 1. , "Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa", African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines.

• 2. , "Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine.

• 3. , "Culture and Development of Traditional Medicine in Africa", Journal of Advanced Research in Humanities and Social Science.

• 4. , "Understanding traditional African healing", African Journal for Physical Health Education, Recreation, and Dance.

• 5. , "Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : ECAM, 2013.

• 6. , "Traditional medicinal animal use by Xhosa and Sotho communities in the Western Cape Province, South Africa", J Ethnobiology Ethnomedicine.

• 7. , "Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : ECAM, 2013.

• 8. , "Traditional Medicines in Africa: An Appraisal of Ten Potent African Medicinal Plants", Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine : ECAM, 2013.

• 9. , "Indigenous Knowledge on the Uses, Sustainability and Conservation of African Ginger (Siphonochilus aethiopicus) among Two Communities in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa", Diversity.

• 10. , "Tamarindus indica L. (Fabaceae): patterns of use in traditional African medicine.", J Ethnopharmacol.

• 11. , "Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa.", African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines.

• 12. , "Trends and Challenges of Traditional Medicine in Africa.", African Journal of Traditional, Complementary, and Alternative Medicines.